The Preamble to the Expedition
Hunt for the Arctic Grail
While a notable feature of the land where Inuit tribes have inhabited for over 4,000 years, the Northwest Passage was a mystical beacon of possibility and conquest that enamored European explorers. The hope was that the passage would be a viable trade route to Asia from the north that would cut travel time. The first recorded attempt to discover the passage was in 1497, beginning the centuries-long hunt.
 | |
| Sir John Barrow |
In 1804, Sir John Barrow was appointed the Second Secretary to the Admiralty. Barrow was an experienced naval traveler and geographer who would greatly influence the next forty years of the British Navy. After the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, many ships and officers were not being utilized. Barrow then proposed that the Navy should focus on exploration of uncharted lands, with the primary target being the Arctic and Antarctic.
The first Royal Navy expedition began in 1818 with Captain John Ross, James Clark Ross’s uncle, with very little success. Dozens upon dozens of expeditions would be sent out over the course of four decades, culminating in the final English expedition of the Northwest Passage in 1845. Both main entry points of the passage—the eastern and western side—had been explored, but the final connecting point between the two was yet to be charted.
Decisions, Decisions
|
Meeting of the Lords of the Admiralty (1841) |
Sir Franklin was no one’s first choice for leading this expedition. The Lords of the Admiralty had three names in mind: James Clark Ross, James Fitzjames, and Francis Crozier. Ross gave many reasons as to why he didn’t want to join, but mainly due to his age (45). Fitzjames was recommended to lead by Sir John Barrow, but the argument in his favor was not strong enough for the other Lords. Crozier had many strikes against him that made the Lords reluctant to elect him as captain despite his skill and knowledge of the polar regions. But the main reason he was not selected was because he himself turned down the position. Sir Franklin was recommended by Ross and would be ultimately chosen in the end with Crozier as second in command and Fitzjames as Commander.
Despite Crozier being a higher rank in the expedition, many tasks that would be assumed by the second were given to Fitzjames instead. This included the recruitment process as well as responsibility for the scientific tasks of the expedition. It is not explicitly stated why these changes were made, but it most likely had to do with Crozier’s considerably poor societal status. Fitzjames would go on to hire a mix of experienced men, ranging from polar veterans to those who’ve never been to the Arctic. Of the 18 officers on board, only 6 had prior experience in the Arctic, and many of the crew were inexperienced and former shipmates of Fitzjames.
Another
crucial decision made was the choice to use tin cans instead of the typical
provisions. There were a few different companies that the expedition could have
employed to make the tins, but the lowest bidder was chosen just seven weeks
before the expedition would depart. 16,000 tins were prepared with all sorts of
meats, fruits, and vegetables in hopes of giving the crew at least some
percentage of the vitamins they would need.
Cleanse or Die
The common killer of sailors in the 1800s was not pirates or rogue waves, but disease. While the world made significant advancements in medicine during this time, there was still much that hadn’t been discovered or easily adapted for life at sea. As the 1800s progressed, cleanliness within naval ships became a major focus point for sailors. New steam technologies provided dryer and airier cabins and interior decks that would help prevent diseases from festering. But when sailing on the open sea, it was a challenge to keep things continuously dry and in its own way, the steam technology caused other unforeseen issues.
On long expeditions it was common to employ a surgeon to care for the ill, injured, and mentally distressed. For the Franklin Expedition, there was a chief surgeon and assistant surgeon assigned to each ship:
~HMS Erebus~
Stephen Samuel Stanley – Chief Surgeon
Not much is known about Stanley’s origins. He entered the Royal Navy as an assistant surgeon in 1838 and saw active duty in the First Opium war. It was during the war that he worked with Fitzjames, which led to this interesting account of Stanley from Fitzjames’ perspective: “…and the shirt sleeves tucked up; giving one unpleasant ideas that he would not mind cutting one's leg off immediately -- 'if not sooner.' He is thoroughly good-natured and obliging, and very attentive to our mess.”
Harry Duncan Spens Goodsir – Assistant Surgeon
~HMS Terror~
James Smart Peddie – Chief Surgeon
Once again, not much is known about James Peddie. He obtained the license of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh in 1836 and entered the Royal Navy as an assistant surgeon. He was promoted to the rank of surgeon just a few months before embarking on the Franklin Expedition.
Alexander McDonald – Assistant Surgeon
Alexander McDonald graduated from the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh in 1838 and worked with Captain William Penny as the ship’s surgeon for a few years. In 1839, Captain Penny brought an Inuk traveler named Eenoolooapik back to Scotland and McDonald became his tutor. McDonald would later go on to write a biography of Eenoolooapik, recounting the events of their voyage to and from the Arctic, once Eenoolooapik was returned to his family on the island of Aggijjat. This biography is likely the only fully published biography of any Inuk published during the 19th century.
The surgeons on these expeditions had to take on the responsibilities and knowledge of various different professions and studies within medicine. From medications to amputations, the surgeons had to use any and all practical knowledge they had procured over the years into their work. There was a dedicated sick bay on the ship, typically found on the orlop deck (the deck closest to the waterline). The med bay could be easily overwhelmed though if a disease were to take hold of the ship, and it didn’t take much for a disease to take over.
The most common diseases sailors faced were:
- Tropical diseases: Diseases such as malaria and yellow fever that are contracted from warm and humid climates
- Typhus: a group of bacterial illnesses that are spread through fleas, lice, and chiggers.
- Symptoms: fever, body aches, cough, digestive issues
- Dysentery: A gastrointestinal disease that is caused by bacterial or parasitic infections.
- Symptoms: diarrhea, fever, weight loss, stomach cramps
- Pneumonia: Inflammation of the lung caused by a bacterial, viral, or fungal infection, such as the flu
- Symptoms: cough with mucus, fever, difficulty breathing
- Tuberculosis: An infectious disease caused by airborne bacteria
- Symptoms: prolonged cough, chest pain, fever, weight loss
- Scurvy: A disease caused by serious vitamin C deficiency
- Symptoms: joint pain, easily bruised skin, bleeding gums, anemia, loosened teeth
Scurvy at the time was one of the most prevalent and the most difficult diseases to treat while at sea. For most expeditions, it was required that each sailor has a daily ration of lemon juice to get some vitamin C into their diet. This was effective, but the problem is that ascorbic acid, what makes the lemon juice effective, will lose its potency as time passes, making it obsolete.
There also was another problem; lead poisoning. The 8,000 tins created for the expedition were hastily made, lined with lead solder that allowed the food to absorb the lead during the entire expedition. But not only was there lead in the tins, but also in the water purification system. The piping used to connect the steam engine to the other mechanical systems also contained lead, so the men on the ships were ingesting lead over the entire course of the expedition.
←The Environment The Voyage→
Comments
Post a Comment